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 Many theories discuss how emotions are elicited in our cognitive system. Discrete Emotions theories (Ekman, 1992; LeDoux, 1996; Öhman & Wiens, 2004) argue that emotions are a set of sensory-motor programs; each of these programs consists of a brain circuit linking eliciting cognitions and somatic responses into a single neural system. While Dimension theories (e.g., Russell, 2003) argue that emotions are cognitive labels to physiological activation, which are characterized in terms of broad bipolar dimensions such as valence and arousal (e.g. I feel negative arousal in a context where I’ve been wronged, therefore I must be angry) Invalid source specified.. In the 1980s Appraisal Theories became a major perspective for emotions studies.
-====Emotions Theories====
+===Emotions Theories===
-It essential to review the history of proposed theories when studying emotions models. The work of (Moors, 2009) reviews many theories mentioned in this paragraph.
+It essential to review the history of proposed theories when studying emotions models. The work of (Moors, 2009) reviews many theories mentioned here.
-- James’ Theory (1890) argues that a stimulus activates bodily response, the experience and feed back of this response produces the emotional response and experience. The intensity and type of emotion relies on the intensity and type of bodily response. Nevertheless, this theory doesn’t describe how bodily responses elicit and map to emotions. This theory was criticized Cannon (1927) on the basis that not all physiological changes cause emotions and that we still experience feelings in the absence of bodily responses.
-- Schachter (1964) considered Cannon’s criticism and stated that a stimulus causes a physiological arousal. This arousal is cognitively mapped to the corresponding emotional experience and its type while the intensity of the arousal defines the intensity of the emotion. In this theory, emotional experience is equated to feeling just like in James’.
+==James’ Theory (1890)==
-- Appraisal Theories: studies proved that unconscious cognition is involved in emotion elicitation. Arnold (1960) coined the term appraisal to denote the cognitive processes preceding emotion elicitation. Appraisal theories agree with Schachter in the fact that arousal precedes emotions however they differ in the placing the cognitive component. Appraisal theories state that cognitive processes precede the bodily physical response as these processes map stimuli to emotions whereas conscious attribution of the cause to the emotion follows. Stimuli-emotion mapping could not be extracted due to the different patterns of causes that evoke different emotions in people. Thus appraisal theories define set of variables. Values of these variables form an appraisal pattern for a specific emotion. The goal relevance to the organism is one variable that affects emotion intensity, along with the stimulus. Different theories consider different set of variables.
+It argues that a stimulus activates bodily response, the experience and feed back of this response produces the emotional response and experience. The intensity and type of emotion relies on the intensity and type of bodily response. Nevertheless, this theory doesn’t describe how bodily responses elicit and map to emotions. This theory was criticized Cannon (1927) on the basis that not all physiological changes cause emotions and that we still experience feelings in the absence of bodily responses.
+==Schachter (1964)==
+This theory considered Cannon’s criticism and stated that a stimulus causes a physiological arousal. This arousal is cognitively mapped to the corresponding emotional experience and its type while the intensity of the arousal defines the intensity of the emotion. In this theory, emotional experience is equated to feeling just like in James’.
+==Appraisal Theories==
+Studies proved that unconscious cognition is involved in emotion elicitation. Arnold (1960) coined the term appraisal to denote the cognitive processes preceding emotion elicitation. Appraisal theories agree with Schachter in the fact that arousal precedes emotions however they differ in the placing the cognitive component. Appraisal theories state that cognitive processes precede the bodily physical response as these processes map stimuli to emotions whereas conscious attribution of the cause to the emotion follows. Stimuli-emotion mapping could not be extracted due to the different patterns of causes that evoke different emotions in people. Thus appraisal theories define set of variables. Values of these variables form an appraisal pattern for a specific emotion. The goal relevance to the organism is one variable that affects emotion intensity, along with the stimulus. Different theories consider different set of variables.
 Appraisal theories propose multi-mode for the functioning and processing of appraisal. This model relies on rule-based mechanisms that compute variables and combine them to elicit appropriate emotions, and associative mechanisms (e.g. Clore & Ortony, 2000;) that retrieve previous pervious appraisal patterns.
-- Network theories: consider associative methods in emotion elicitations as those theories relate to semantic network models and memories (e.g., Berkowitz, 1990; Bower, 1981; Lang, 1985; Leventhal, 1980, 1984). When an emotional experience is evoked, the stimuli, actions, goals and responses are saved in the memory in a specific schema network for each emotion. Every time a stimulus is encountered, the schema of this stimulus or a similar one gets activated. Schemas might get activated if any of their nodes are activated. For example the activation of a response of a sad face could activate the corresponding sad emotion. These theories make use of the rule-based mechanisms in order to compute the values of stimuli affecting the elicited emotion just like appraisal theories do.
+==Network theories==
+These theories consider associative methods in emotion elicitations as those theories relate to semantic network models and memories (e.g., Berkowitz, 1990; Bower, 1981; Lang, 1985; Leventhal, 1980, 1984). When an emotional experience is evoked, the stimuli, actions, goals and responses are saved in the memory in a specific schema network for each emotion. Every time a stimulus is encountered, the schema of this stimulus or a similar one gets activated. Schemas might get activated if any of their nodes are activated. For example the activation of a response of a sad face could activate the corresponding sad emotion. These theories make use of the rule-based mechanisms in order to compute the values of stimuli affecting the elicited emotion just like appraisal theories do.
+==Affect Program theory==
+Emotions generation involves processes of stimulus evaluation, which is the focus of appraisal theories, and then translating the evaluation into emotion and consequences, which is the focus of affect program theory (e.g., Ekman, 1992, 2007; Izard, 1977; Panksepp, 1982, 1998, 2000; Tomkins, 1962). The theory states that every emotion has a specific neural circuit serving an evolutionary survival function. For example fear emotion serves survival purpose. Ekman (1992) argues that a neural circuit is triggered after prior appraisal just like the multi-modal. When a circuit is triggered it generate emotional experience, action tendencies and other emotion-related activities. The activation of a neural circuit should exceed the circuit’s threshold or else it won’t get activated. This theory is committed for the view that “basic emotions are the blocks for building emotional life” (Moors, 2009).
+There is a list of evidences for this theory from which we mention:
+- Neurological evidence for specialized emotion neural circuits (Panksepp, 1998, 2000)
+- Existence of emotion specific responses, which are also universal (Ekman, 1972)
+It is note-worthy that this theory is compatible with the theories previously mentioned.
+==Barrett’s Conceptual Act theory==
+Barrett (2006b) builds her theory on Russell’s (2003) who argues against the notion that basic emotions are building blocks of emotional life, and he states that emotional variables of valence and arousal are the building blocks. These variables are properties of stimuli, neurophysiological states and of conscious experience. The combination of these variables is called “affective quality” which causes a state called “core affect”. Specific emotions are in this case the categorization of core affect, which are not naturally given rather they socially emerge. Barrett agrees with Russell that emotions are not natural and that stimuli elicit core affect. Barrett states that categorization of core affect is a form of perception that helps shaping the emotional experience. This categorization is affected by previous conceptual knowledge and thus she uses the term conceptual act to denote it. Category representation knowledge is perceptual because it has sensory features, embodied as its activation simulates previous instances of the same category, and situated according to contexts. Emotion categories are essential part of emotional experience in this theory, while in appraisal theories emotion category is a consequent of emotional experience. Like theories of James (1890) and Schachter (1964), this theory equate emotion with emotional experience and hence could be also called feeling theory.
 ===Appraisal Theories===
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 This example is used in building virtual characters and avatars to treat patients with social phobia. These avatars will evoke the undesired symptoms in the patient (like being negative and aggressive toward the speaking patient). Once these symptoms are identified, the patient is treated wit the appropriate therapeutic interventions (e.g., cognitive restructuring, systematic desensitization).
+===Emotions are Social===
+As we have seen before, emotions are personal cognitive appraisals that follow personal interests, goals and perspectives. Parkinson(Parkinson, 1996) however, connects emotions to social relationships. According to his article, humans are affected by people around them and responding to this affection in emotions. Some emotions are related directly to other people like anger, envy, jealousy, hate and shame. Those emotions are elicited by appraisal of current interpersonal status of the relationship with others. Even when emotions are not directly related to others they could still connected be connected to social aspects like when a person is afraid or anxious about what others think of him. Moreover, cultural aspects affect emotions significance. Appraisal theories assess personal goals and plans of the person in order to elicit appropriate emotion. Personal goals are culturally supplemented such as wealth and fame. This is also noticeable when looking at different cultures and how they experience different emotions in response to similar situations. Culture extends its effect on the display and the way of expression of emotions also.
+Supporting the previous discussion about importance of one agent to have an understanding of other agents’ emotional models and situations, we see that emotions are looked at like a contagious affect. Each other’s emotions and moods socially affect people. Non-verbal communication affect others and hence result in non-verbal reactions and hence emotions. Emotions affection shows for example in couples (Gottman, 1979) where communication of negative or positive emotions from one party affects the other party. This effect seems to be automatic rather than being reasoned and thought about. Again this point reconfirms the necessity of one agent to automatically consider other agent’s emotions to react accordingly.
+Interpersonal Function of Emotions
+Emotions expression conveys the value of an appraised object or event. The reason behind that is probably to achieve interpersonal effect by making such emotional claims (Parkinson, 1996). Chapman (1983) examined children watching cartoon; a child laughed more when he was alone and two children laughed more than a group. This study shows the interpersonal effect on facilitating or inhibiting emotional expression.
+Emotions are Communicative
+Parkinson categorizes the interpersonal messages of each core theme emotion that appraisal theories characterize in the below table.
+Emotion+++++++++Core relational theme++++++++++++++++++++++Communicative Agenda
+Anger+++++++++++Other-blame++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Take me seriously and give me the respect I deserve!
+Fear++++++++++++Danger+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Help/protect me!
+Guilt+++++++++++Self-blame+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Forgive me!
-Bibliography
+Happiness+++++++Success+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ Let’s celebrate!
+Hope+++++++++++ Potential for success++++++++++++++++++++Let’s keep on trying!
+Love+++++++++++ Desiring or participating in affection+++Be/stay my special ally! Let’s be intimate friends
+Sadness+++++++++++Irrevocable loss++++++++++++++++++++++++++++Comfort/reassure me!
+Pride+++++++++++Enhancement of ego identity by taking credit for an achievement+++++++++++Adjust your opinion of me upwards in accordance with my achievement!
+This categorization is promising if applied in emotional model of artificial agents. If an agent is able to comprehend the message of another agent implied via the latter’s emotional expression, then the interaction would reach a high level of sophistication between agents on the one hand and agents and humans on the other hand.
+====Bibliography====
 Öhman, , A., and S. Wiens. "The concept of an evolved fear module and cognitive theories of anxiety." In Feelings and Emotions, by N. Frijda & A. H. Fischer (Eds.) A. Manstead, 58-80. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
 Aitken, P. P. "Judgments of pleasingness and interestingness as functions of visual complexity." Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1974: 103, 240–244.
 Bartneck, Christoph. "Characters, Integrating the OCC Model of Emotions in Embodied." 2002.
+Barrett, L. F. (2006b). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review , 10, 20-46.
 Ekman, P. "An argument for basic emotions." In Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-2000. 1992.
 Elliott, C. "The affective reasoner: A process model of emotions in a multi-agent system (Ph.D Dissertation No. 32). ." Northwestern, IL: Northwestern University Institute for the Learning Scienceso, 1992.
 Gratch, Jonathan, Stacy Marsella, and Paolo Petta. "Modeling the Cognitive Antecedents and Consequences of Emotion."
 Hudlicka, Eva. "A Computational Model of Emotion and Personality: Applications to Psychotherapy Research and Practice." In Proceedings of the 10th Annual CyberTherapy Conference: A Decade of Virtual Reality, Basel, Switzerland. 2005.
 Hudlicka, Eva. "Modeling Emotion in Symbolic Cognitive Architectures." AAAI Fall Symposium Series, TR FS-98-03. Menlo Park, CA: AAAI Press., 1998.
 Hudlicka, Eva. "This time with feeling: Integrated Model of Trait and State Effects on Cognition and Behavior." In Applied Artificial Intelligence,, 16:1-31. 2002.
 Kuppens, P., I. Van Mechelen, and D. J. M. Smits. "The appraisal basis of anger: Specificity, necessity, and sufficiency of components." In Emotion, 254–269. 2003.
 Lazarus, R. S. Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
 Lazarus, R. S. "Relational meaning and discrete emotions." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 37–67. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
 LeDoux, J. The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1996.
 Roseman, I. J. "A model of appraisal in the emotion system: Integrating theory, research, and applications." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 68–91. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
 Roseman, I. J., and C. A. Smith. "Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 3– 19. New York: Oxford University Press., 2001.
 Scherer, K. R. "Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 92–120. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
 Scherer, K. R. "On the sequential nature of appraisal processes: Indirect evidence from a recognition task." In Cognition and Emotion, 13, 763–793. 1999.
 Silvia, P. J. "Cognitive appraisals and interest in visual art: Exploring an appraisal theory of aesthetic emotions." In Empirical Studies of the Arts, 23, 119-133. 2005.
-Smith, C. A., and L. D. Kirby. "Toward delivering on the promise of appraisal theory." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 121–138. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
+Smith, C. A., and L. D. Kirby. "Toward delivering on the promise of appraisal theory." In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research, by A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.) K. R. Scherer, 121–138. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.