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state_specific_science [2012-08-14 13:37] – nikstate_specific_science [2012-08-14 13:49] (current) – nik
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 +====State-Specific Sciences====
  
 <blockquote> <blockquote>
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 </blockquote> </blockquote>
  
---Charles Tart+--[[Charles Tart]]
  
 ====States of Consciousness and State-Specific Sciences==== ====States of Consciousness and State-Specific Sciences====
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   * DOI: 10.1126/science.176.4040.1203    * DOI: 10.1126/science.176.4040.1203 
    
-     Blackburn (1) recently noted that many of our most talented +Blackburn (1) recently noted that many of our most talented 
 young people are "turned off" to science:  as a solution, he  young people are "turned off" to science:  as a solution, he 
 proposed that we recognize the validity of a more  proposed that we recognize the validity of a more 
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 complementary to the classical intellectual approach. complementary to the classical intellectual approach.
            
-     I have seen the same rejection of science by many of the +I have seen the same rejection of science by many of the 
 brightest students in California, and the problem is indeed  brightest students in California, and the problem is indeed 
 serious.  Blackburn's  analysis is valid, but not deep enough.  A  serious.  Blackburn's  analysis is valid, but not deep enough.  A 
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 religions" (my italics). religions" (my italics).
    
-     To illustrate, a recent Gallup poll (2) indicated that +To illustrate, a recent Gallup poll (2) indicated that 
 approximately half of the American college students have tried  approximately half of the American college students have tried 
 marijuana, and a large number of them use it fairly regularly.   marijuana, and a large number of them use it fairly regularly.  
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 performance on complex psychomotor tests. performance on complex psychomotor tests.
    
-     Would you risk going to jail to experience these?+Would you risk going to jail to experience these?
    
-     A young marijuana smoker who hears a scientist or physician +A young marijuana smoker who hears a scientist or physician 
 talk about these findings as the basic nature of marijuana  talk about these findings as the basic nature of marijuana 
 intoxication will simply sneer and have his antiscientific  intoxication will simply sneer and have his antiscientific 
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 intoxication is all about (3). intoxication is all about (3).
    
-     More formally, an increasingly significant number of people +More formally, an increasingly significant number of people 
 are experimenting with ASC's in themselves, and finding the  are experimenting with ASC's in themselves, and finding the 
 experiences thus gained of extreme importance in their philosophy  experiences thus gained of extreme importance in their philosophy 
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 meditation (4) and yoga. meditation (4) and yoga.
    
-     The purpose of this article is to show that it is possible +The purpose of this article is to show that it is possible 
 to investigate and work with the important phenomena of ASC's in  to investigate and work with the important phenomena of ASC's in 
 a manner which is perfectly compatible with the essence of  a manner which is perfectly compatible with the essence of 
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 States of Consciousness States of Consciousness
    
-     An ASC may be defined for the purposes of this article as a +An ASC may be defined for the purposes of this article as a 
 qualitative alteration in the overall pattern of mental  qualitative alteration in the overall pattern of mental 
 functioning, such that the experiencer feels his consciousness is  functioning, such that the experiencer feels his consciousness is 
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 in terms of the overall patterning of psychological functioning.   in terms of the overall patterning of psychological functioning.  
    
-     An analogy with computer functioning can clarify this +An analogy with computer functioning can clarify this 
 definition.  A computer has a complex program of many  definition.  A computer has a complex program of many 
 subroutines.  If we reprogram it quite differently, the same  subroutines.  If we reprogram it quite differently, the same 
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 program of a computer.   program of a computer.  
    
-     The ASC's experienced by almost all ordinary people are +The ASC's experienced by almost all ordinary people are 
 dreaming states and the hypnagogic and hypnopompic states, the  dreaming states and the hypnagogic and hypnopompic states, the 
 transitional states between sleeping and waking.  Many other  transitional states between sleeping and waking.  Many other 
 people experience another ASC, alcohol intoxication. people experience another ASC, alcohol intoxication.
    
-     The relatively new (to our culture) ASC's that are now +The relatively new (to our culture) ASC's that are now 
 having such an impact are those produced by marijuana, more  having such an impact are those produced by marijuana, more 
 powerful psychedelic drugs such as LSD, meditative states,  powerful psychedelic drugs such as LSD, meditative states, 
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 States of Consciousness and Paradigms States of Consciousness and Paradigms
    
-     It is useful to compare this concept of an SoC, a +It is useful to compare this concept of an SoC, a 
 qualitatively distinct organization of the patterning of mental  qualitatively distinct organization of the patterning of mental 
 functioning, with Kuhn's (6) concept of paradigms in science.  A  functioning, with Kuhn's (6) concept of paradigms in science.  A 
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 Copernican astronomy and Newtonian dynamics. Copernican astronomy and Newtonian dynamics.
    
-     Because of their tremendous success, paradigms undergo a +Because of their tremendous success, paradigms undergo a 
 change which, in principle, ordinary scientific theories do not  change which, in principle, ordinary scientific theories do not 
 undergo.  An ordinary scientific theory is always subject to  undergo.  An ordinary scientific theory is always subject to 
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 gravity, for example.   gravity, for example.  
    
-     A paradigm serves to concentrate the attention of a +A paradigm serves to concentrate the attention of a 
 researcher on sensible problem areas and to prevent him from  researcher on sensible problem areas and to prevent him from 
 wasting his time on what might be trivia.  On the other hand, by  wasting his time on what might be trivia.  On the other hand, by 
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 communications during paradigm clashes. communications during paradigm clashes.
    
-     The concept of a paradigm and of an SoC are quite similar.  +The concept of a paradigm and of an SoC are quite similar.  
 Both constitute complex, interlocking sets of rules and theories  Both constitute complex, interlocking sets of rules and theories 
 that enable a person to interact with and interpret experiences  that enable a person to interact with and interpret experiences 
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 Paradigm Clash between "Straight" and "Hip" Paradigm Clash between "Straight" and "Hip"
    
-     Human beings become emotionally attached to the things which +Human beings become emotionally attached to the things which 
 give them pleasure, and a scientist making important progress  give them pleasure, and a scientist making important progress 
 within a particular paradigm becomes emotionally attached to it.   within a particular paradigm becomes emotionally attached to it.  
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 different paradigm. different paradigm.
    
-     The conflict now existing between those who have experienced +The conflict now existing between those who have experienced 
 certain ASC's (whose ranks include many young scientists) and  certain ASC's (whose ranks include many young scientists) and 
 those who have not is very much a paradigmatic conflict.  For  those who have not is very much a paradigmatic conflict.  For 
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 virtue of being incapable of perceiving the obvious! virtue of being incapable of perceiving the obvious!
    
-     Historically, paradigm clashes have been characterized by +Historically, paradigm clashes have been characterized by 
 bitter emotional antagonisms, and total rejection of the  bitter emotional antagonisms, and total rejection of the 
 opponent.  Currently we are seeing the same sort of process:  the  opponent.  Currently we are seeing the same sort of process:  the 
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 nil. nil.
    
-     Must the experiencers of ASC's continue to see the +Must the experiencers of ASC's continue to see the 
 scientists as concentrating on the irrelevant, and the scientists  scientists as concentrating on the irrelevant, and the scientists 
 see the experiencers as confused (7) or mentally ill?  Or can  see the experiencers as confused (7) or mentally ill?  Or can 
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 The Nature of Knowledge The Nature of Knowledge
    
-     Basically, science (from the Latin scire, to know) deals +Basically, science (from the Latin scire, to know) deals 
 with knowledge.  Knowledge may be defined as an immediately given  with knowledge.  Knowledge may be defined as an immediately given 
 experiential feeling of congruence between two different kinds of  experiential feeling of congruence between two different kinds of 
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 been worked out for judging degrees of congruence. been worked out for judging degrees of congruence.
    
-     All knowledge then, is basically experiential knowledge.  +All knowledge then, is basically experiential knowledge.  
 Even my knowledge of the physical world can be reduced to this:   Even my knowledge of the physical world can be reduced to this:  
 given certain sets of experiences, which I (by assumption)  given certain sets of experiences, which I (by assumption) 
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 again attribute to the external world. again attribute to the external world.
    
-     Because science has been incredibly successful in dealing +Because science has been incredibly successful in dealing 
 with the physical world, it has been historically associated with  with the physical world, it has been historically associated with 
 a philosophy of physicalism, the belief that reality is all  a philosophy of physicalism, the belief that reality is all 
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 The Essence of Scientific Method The Essence of Scientific Method
    
-     I shall discuss the essence of scientific method, and show +I shall discuss the essence of scientific method, and show 
 that this essence is perfectly compatible with an enlarged study  that this essence is perfectly compatible with an enlarged study 
 of the important phenomena of ASC's.  In particular, I propose  of the important phenomena of ASC's.  In particular, I propose 
 that state-specific sciences (SSS) be developed. that state-specific sciences (SSS) be developed.
    
-     As satisfying as the feeling of knowing can be, we are often +As satisfying as the feeling of knowing can be, we are often 
 wrong:  what seems like congruence at first later does not match,  wrong:  what seems like congruence at first later does not match, 
 or has no generality.  Man has learned that his reasoning is  or has no generality.  Man has learned that his reasoning is 
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 pitfalls of observation and reasoning.   pitfalls of observation and reasoning.  
    
-     I shall discuss four basic rules of scientific method to +I shall discuss four basic rules of scientific method to 
 which an investigator is committed:  (i) good observation; (ii)  which an investigator is committed:  (i) good observation; (ii) 
 the public nature of observation; (iii) the necessity to theorize  the public nature of observation; (iii) the necessity to theorize 
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 Observation Observation
    
-     The scientist is committed to observe as well as possible +The scientist is committed to observe as well as possible 
 the phenomena of interest and to search constantly for better  the phenomena of interest and to search constantly for better 
 ways of making these observations.  But our paradigmatic  ways of making these observations.  But our paradigmatic 
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 parts of it. parts of it.
    
-     Many of the most important phenomena of ASC's have been +Many of the most important phenomena of ASC's have been 
 observed poorly or not at all because of the physicalistic  observed poorly or not at all because of the physicalistic 
 labeling of them as epiphenomena, so that they have been called  labeling of them as epiphenomena, so that they have been called 
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 whether it is difficult or not. whether it is difficult or not.
    
-     We must consider one other problem of observation.  One of +We must consider one other problem of observation.  One of 
 the traditional idols of science, the "detached observer," has no  the traditional idols of science, the "detached observer," has no 
 place in dealing with many internal phenomena of SoC's.  Not only  place in dealing with many internal phenomena of SoC's.  Not only 
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 compensate for them.   compensate for them.  
    
-     A recognition of the unreality of the detached observer in +A recognition of the unreality of the detached observer in 
 the psychological sciences is becoming widespread, under the  the psychological sciences is becoming widespread, under the 
 topics of experimenter bias (8) and demand characteristics (9).   topics of experimenter bias (8) and demand characteristics (9).  
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 Public Nature of Observation Public Nature of Observation
    
-     Observations must be public in that they must be replicable +Observations must be public in that they must be replicable 
 by any properly trained observer.  The experienced conditions  by any properly trained observer.  The experienced conditions 
 that led to the report of certain experiences must be described  that led to the report of certain experiences must be described 
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 aspects of the conditions. aspects of the conditions.
    
-     The physicalistic accretion to this rule of consensual +The physicalistic accretion to this rule of consensual 
 validation is that, physical data being the only "real" data,  validation is that, physical data being the only "real" data, 
 internal phenomena must be reduced to physiological or behavioral  internal phenomena must be reduced to physiological or behavioral 
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 is quite possible.  is quite possible. 
    
-     The emphasis on public observations in science has had a +The emphasis on public observations in science has had a 
 misleading quality insofar as it implies that any intelligent man  misleading quality insofar as it implies that any intelligent man 
 can replicate a scientist's observations.  This might have been  can replicate a scientist's observations.  This might have been 
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 a background in the physical sciences. a background in the physical sciences.
    
-     Given the high complexity of the phenomena associated with +Given the high complexity of the phenomena associated with 
 ASC's, the need for replication by trained observers is  ASC's, the need for replication by trained observers is 
 exceptionally important.  Since it generally takes 4 to 10 years  exceptionally important.  Since it generally takes 4 to 10 years 
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 observers of ASC phenomena. observers of ASC phenomena.
    
-     Further, for the state-specific sciences that I propose +Further, for the state-specific sciences that I propose 
 should be established, we cannot specify the requirements that  should be established, we cannot specify the requirements that 
 would constitute adequate training.  These would only be  would constitute adequate training.  These would only be 
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 investigators of meditative states. investigators of meditative states.
    
-     Public observation, then, always refers to a +Public observation, then, always refers to a 
 limited,specially trained public.  It is only by basic agreement  limited,specially trained public.  It is only by basic agreement 
 among those specially trained people that data become accepted as  among those specially trained people that data become accepted as 
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 cannot replicate the observations is of little relevance. cannot replicate the observations is of little relevance.
    
-     A second problem in consensual validation arises from a +A second problem in consensual validation arises from a 
 phenomenon predicted by my concept of ASC's, but not yet  phenomenon predicted by my concept of ASC's, but not yet 
 empirically investigated, namely, state-specific communication.   empirically investigated, namely, state-specific communication.  
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 seem "deteriorated." seem "deteriorated."
    
-     Practically all investigations of communication by persons +Practically all investigations of communication by persons 
 in ASC's have resulted in reports of deterioration of  in ASC's have resulted in reports of deterioration of 
 communication abilities.  In designing their studies, however,  communication abilities.  In designing their studies, however, 
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 empirically determined. empirically determined.
    
-     Thus consensual validation my be restricted by the fact that +Thus consensual validation my be restricted by the fact that 
 only observers in the same ASC are able to communicate adequately  only observers in the same ASC are able to communicate adequately 
 with each other, and they may not be able to communicate  with each other, and they may not be able to communicate 
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 Theorizing Theorizing
    
-     A scientist may theorize about his observations as much as +A scientist may theorize about his observations as much as 
 he wishes to, but the theory he develops must consistently  he wishes to, but the theory he develops must consistently 
 account for all that he has observed, and should have a logical  account for all that he has observed, and should have a logical 
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 necessarily accept). necessarily accept).
    
-     The requirement to theorize logically and consistently with +The requirement to theorize logically and consistently with 
 the data is not as simple as it looks, however.  Any logic  the data is not as simple as it looks, however.  Any logic 
 consists of a basic set of assumptions and a set of rules for  consists of a basic set of assumptions and a set of rules for 
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 Observable Consequences Observable Consequences
    
-     Any theory a scientist develops must have observable +Any theory a scientist develops must have observable 
 consequences, and from that theory it must be possible to make  consequences, and from that theory it must be possible to make 
 predictions that can be verified by observation.  If such  predictions that can be verified by observation.  If such 
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 invalid, regardless of its elegance, logic, or other appeal. invalid, regardless of its elegance, logic, or other appeal.
    
-     Ordinarily we think of empirical validation, of validation +Ordinarily we think of empirical validation, of validation 
 in terms of testable consequences that produce physical effects,  in terms of testable consequences that produce physical effects, 
 but this is misleading.  Any effect, whether interpreted as  but this is misleading.  Any effect, whether interpreted as 
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 State-Specific Sciences State-Specific Sciences
    
-     We tend to envision the practice of science like this:  +We tend to envision the practice of science like this:  
 centered around interest in some particular range of subject  centered around interest in some particular range of subject 
 matter, a small number of highly selected, talented, and  matter, a small number of highly selected, talented, and 
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 incomprehensible to laymen.   incomprehensible to laymen.  
    
-     This general description is equally applicable to a variety +This general description is equally applicable to a variety 
 of sciences, or areas that could become sciences, whether we  of sciences, or areas that could become sciences, whether we 
 called such areas biology, physics, chemistry, psychology,  called such areas biology, physics, chemistry, psychology, 
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 the same.  the same. 
    
-     More formally, I now propose the creation of various +More formally, I now propose the creation of various 
 state-specific sciences.  If such sciences could be created, we  state-specific sciences.  If such sciences could be created, we 
 would have a group of highly skilled, dedicated, and trained  would have a group of highly skilled, dedicated, and trained 
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 people in other SoC's.  people in other SoC's. 
    
-     The fact that the experimenter should be able to function +The fact that the experimenter should be able to function 
 skillfully in the SoC itself for a state-specific science does  skillfully in the SoC itself for a state-specific science does 
 not necessarily mean that he would always be the subject.  While  not necessarily mean that he would always be the subject.  While 
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 or be in that SoC himself for data reduction the theorizing.  or be in that SoC himself for data reduction the theorizing. 
    
-     Examples of some observations made and theorizing done by a +Examples of some observations made and theorizing done by a 
 scientist in a specific ASC would illustrate the nature of a  scientist in a specific ASC would illustrate the nature of a 
 proposed state-specific science.  But this is not possible  proposed state-specific science.  But this is not possible 
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 State-Specific Sciences and Religion State-Specific Sciences and Religion
    
-     Some aspects of organized religion appear to resemble +Some aspects of organized religion appear to resemble 
 state-specific sciences.  There are techniques that allow the  state-specific sciences.  There are techniques that allow the 
 believer to enter an ASC and then have religious experiences in  believer to enter an ASC and then have religious experiences in 
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 ASC's induced by an intensely emotional atmosphere. ASC's induced by an intensely emotional atmosphere.
    
-     In examining the esoteric training systems of some +In examining the esoteric training systems of some 
 religions, there seems to be even more resemblance between such  religions, there seems to be even more resemblance between such 
 mystical ways and state-specific sciences, for here we often have  mystical ways and state-specific sciences, for here we often have 
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 knowledge. knowledge.
    
-     Nevertheless the proposed state-specific sciences are not +Nevertheless the proposed state-specific sciences are not 
 simply religion in a new guise.  The use of ASC's in religion may  simply religion in a new guise.  The use of ASC's in religion may 
 involve the kind of commitment to searching for truth that is  involve the kind of commitment to searching for truth that is 
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 belief system.   belief system.  
    
-     The crucial distinction between a religion utilizing ASC's +The crucial distinction between a religion utilizing ASC's 
 and a state-specific science is the commitment of the scientist  and a state-specific science is the commitment of the scientist 
 to reexamine constantly his own belief system and to question the  to reexamine constantly his own belief system and to question the 
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 considerable overlap. considerable overlap.
    
 +<html><pre>
                        STATE-SPECIFIC SCIENCE 1                        STATE-SPECIFIC SCIENCE 1
                        _________________________                        _________________________
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                                                |____________|____________|                                                |____________|____________|
    
 +</pre></html>
 +
 [Apologies for the crudeness of this Wen diagram, the circles in the [Apologies for the crudeness of this Wen diagram, the circles in the
 original look much better than these ASCII approximations] original look much better than these ASCII approximations]
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 handled more adequately  within these potential new sciences. handled more adequately  within these potential new sciences.
            
-     Interrelationships more complex than those that are + Interrelationships more complex than those that are 
 illustrated in Fig. 1 are possible. illustrated in Fig. 1 are possible.
    
-     The possibility of stimulating interactions between + The possibility of stimulating interactions between 
 different state-specific sciences is very real.  Creative  different state-specific sciences is very real.  Creative 
 break-throughs in NCS have frequently been made by scientists  break-throughs in NCS have frequently been made by scientists 
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 within their NCS. within their NCS.
    
-     A current example of such interaction is the finding that in + A current example of such interaction is the finding that in 
 Zen meditation (a highly developed discipline in Japan) there are  Zen meditation (a highly developed discipline in Japan) there are 
 physiological correlates of meditative experiences, such as  physiological correlates of meditative experiences, such as 
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 Differences Differences
    
-     A widespread and misleading assumption that hinders the + A widespread and misleading assumption that hinders the 
 development of state-specific sciences and confuses their  development of state-specific sciences and confuses their 
 interrelationships is the assumption that because two people are  interrelationships is the assumption that because two people are 
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 socially approved lines, these differences are covered up. socially approved lines, these differences are covered up.
    
-     For example, some people think in images, others in words.  + For example, some people think in images, others in words.  
 Some can voluntarily anesthetize parts of their body, most  Some can voluntarily anesthetize parts of their body, most 
 cannot.  Some recall past events by imaging the scene and looking  cannot.  Some recall past events by imaging the scene and looking 
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 no images. no images.
    
-     This means that person A may be able to observe certain + This means that person A may be able to observe certain 
 kinds of experiential data that person B cannot experience in his  kinds of experiential data that person B cannot experience in his 
 ordinary SoC, no matter how hard B tries.  There may be several  ordinary SoC, no matter how hard B tries.  There may be several 
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 normality. normality.
    
-     In some cases, B may be able to enter an ASC and there + In some cases, B may be able to enter an ASC and there 
 experience the sorts of things that A has reported to him.  A  experience the sorts of things that A has reported to him.  A 
 realm of knowledge that is ordinary for A is then specific for an  realm of knowledge that is ordinary for A is then specific for an 
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 SoC. SoC.
    
-     The phenomenon of synesthesia can again serve as an example.  + The phenomenon of synesthesia can again serve as an example.  
 Some individuals possess this ability in their ordinary SoC, most  Some individuals possess this ability in their ordinary SoC, most 
 do not.  Yet 56 percent of a sample of experienced marijuana  do not.  Yet 56 percent of a sample of experienced marijuana 
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 the drug-induced ASC. the drug-induced ASC.
    
-     Thus we may conceive of bits of knowledge that are specific + Thus we may conceive of bits of knowledge that are specific 
 for an ASC for one individual, part of ordinary consciousness for  for an ASC for one individual, part of ordinary consciousness for 
 another.  Arguments over the usefulness of the concept of states  another.  Arguments over the usefulness of the concept of states 
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 ordinary SoC of various investigators. ordinary SoC of various investigators.
    
-     Another important source of individual differences, little + Another important source of individual differences, little 
 understood at present, is the degree to which an individual may  understood at present, is the degree to which an individual may 
 first make a particular observation or form a concept in one SoC  first make a particular observation or form a concept in one SoC 
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 probably be enormous. probably be enormous.
    
-     I have only outlined the complexities created by individual + I have only outlined the complexities created by individual 
 differences in normal SoC's and have used the normal SoC as a  differences in normal SoC's and have used the normal SoC as a 
 baseline for comparison with ASC's; but it is evident that every  baseline for comparison with ASC's; but it is evident that every 
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 Problems, Pitfalls, and Personal Perils Problems, Pitfalls, and Personal Perils
    
-     If we use the practical experience of Western man with ASC's + If we use the practical experience of Western man with ASC's 
 as a guide, the development of state-specific sciences will be  as a guide, the development of state-specific sciences will be 
 beset by a number of difficulties.  These difficulties will be of  beset by a number of difficulties.  These difficulties will be of 
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 problems first. problems first.
    
-     The first important problem in the proposed development of + The first important problem in the proposed development of 
 state-specific sciences is the obvious perception of truth.  In  state-specific sciences is the obvious perception of truth.  In 
 many ASC's, one's experience is that one is obviously perception  many ASC's, one's experience is that one is obviously perception 
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 to distrust the obvious. to distrust the obvious.
    
-     A second major problem in developing state-specific sciences + A second major problem in developing state-specific sciences 
 is that in some ASC's one's abilities to visualize and imagine  is that in some ASC's one's abilities to visualize and imagine 
 are immensely enhanced, so that whatever one imagines seems  are immensely enhanced, so that whatever one imagines seems 
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 observed and experience it as datum.  If one can essentially  observed and experience it as datum.  If one can essentially 
 conjure up anything one wishes, how can we ever get at truth? conjure up anything one wishes, how can we ever get at truth?
-     One way of looking at this problem is to consider any such + One way of looking at this problem is to consider any such 
 vivid imaginings as potential effects: they are data, in the  vivid imaginings as potential effects: they are data, in the 
 sense that what can be vividly imagined in a given SoC is  sense that what can be vividly imagined in a given SoC is 
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 can be imagined may show a lawful pattern. can be imagined may show a lawful pattern.
    
-     More generally, the way to approach this problem is to + More generally, the way to approach this problem is to 
 realize  that it is not unique to ASC's.  One can have all sorts  realize  that it is not unique to ASC's.  One can have all sorts 
 of illusions, and misperceptions in our ordinary SoC.  Before the  of illusions, and misperceptions in our ordinary SoC.  Before the 
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 lawfulness. lawfulness.
    
-     The effects of this enhanced vividness of imagination in + The effects of this enhanced vividness of imagination in 
 some ASC's will be complicated further by two other important  some ASC's will be complicated further by two other important 
 problems, namely, experimenter bias (8, 9), and the fact that one  problems, namely, experimenter bias (8, 9), and the fact that one 
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 arising from various experiences be verified experientially. arising from various experiences be verified experientially.
    
-     A third major problem is that state-specific sciences + A third major problem is that state-specific sciences 
 probably cannot be developed for all ASC's: some ASC's may depend  probably cannot be developed for all ASC's: some ASC's may depend 
 on or result from genuine deterioration of observational and  on or result from genuine deterioration of observational and 
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 a priori decisions based on reasoning in our ordinary SoC's. a priori decisions based on reasoning in our ordinary SoC's.
    
-     A fourth major problem is that of ineffability.  Some + A fourth major problem is that of ineffability.  Some 
 experiences are ineffable in the sense that: (i) a person may  experiences are ineffable in the sense that: (i) a person may 
 experience them, but be unable to express or conceptualize them  experience them, but be unable to express or conceptualize them 
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 power and rigor as conventional scientific endeavor. power and rigor as conventional scientific endeavor.
    
-     Many phenomena which are now considered ineffable may not be + Many phenomena which are now considered ineffable may not be 
 so in reality.  This may be a matter of our general lack of  so in reality.  This may be a matter of our general lack of 
 experience with ASC's and the lack of an adequate language for  experience with ASC's and the lack of an adequate language for 
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 primarily in adaptation to survival in the physical world. primarily in adaptation to survival in the physical world.
    
-     Finally, we should recognize the possibility that various + Finally, we should recognize the possibility that various 
 phenomena of ASC's may be too complex for human beings to  phenomena of ASC's may be too complex for human beings to 
 understand.  The phenomena may depend on or be affected by so  understand.  The phenomena may depend on or be affected by so 
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 Perils Perils
    
-     The personal perils that an investigator will face in + The personal perils that an investigator will face in 
 attempting to develop a state-specific science are of two kinds,  attempting to develop a state-specific science are of two kinds, 
 those associated with reactions colloquially called a bad trip  those associated with reactions colloquially called a bad trip 
 and a good trip, respectively. and a good trip, respectively.
    
-     Bad trips, in which an extremely unpleasant, emotional + Bad trips, in which an extremely unpleasant, emotional 
 reaction is experienced in an ASC, and in which there are  reaction is experienced in an ASC, and in which there are 
 possible long-term adverse consequences on a person's personal  possible long-term adverse consequences on a person's personal 
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 those who experience them. those who experience them.
    
-     In many ASC's, defenses against unacceptable personal + In many ASC's, defenses against unacceptable personal 
 impulses may become partially or wholly ineffective, so the  impulses may become partially or wholly ineffective, so the 
 person feels flooded with traumatic material that he cannot  person feels flooded with traumatic material that he cannot 
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 could minimize these hazards for at least some people. could minimize these hazards for at least some people.
    
-     Good trips may also endanger an investigator.  A trip may + Good trips may also endanger an investigator.  A trip may 
 produce experiences that are so rewarding that they interfere  produce experiences that are so rewarding that they interfere 
 with the scientific activity of the investigator.  The perception  with the scientific activity of the investigator.  The perception 
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 of these, can seriously stifle the progress of investigation. of these, can seriously stifle the progress of investigation.
    
-     These personal perils again emphasizes necessity of + These personal perils again emphasizes necessity of 
 developing adequate training programs for scientists who wish to  developing adequate training programs for scientists who wish to 
 develop state-specific sciences.  Although it is difficult to  develop state-specific sciences.  Although it is difficult to 
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 ASC. ASC.
    
-     Many of us know that there have been cases where scientists, + Many of us know that there have been cases where scientists, 
 after becoming personally involved with ASC's, have subsequently  after becoming personally involved with ASC's, have subsequently 
 become very poor scientists or have experienced personal  become very poor scientists or have experienced personal 
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 SoC's that are suitable for development, and the kinds of people  SoC's that are suitable for development, and the kinds of people 
 that are best suited to such work (16). that are best suited to such work (16).
-     + 
    
 Prospects Prospects
    
-     I believe that an examination of human history and our + I believe that an examination of human history and our 
 current situation provides the strongest argument for the  current situation provides the strongest argument for the 
 necessity of developing state-specific sciences.  Throughout  necessity of developing state-specific sciences.  Throughout 
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 ASC phenomena in scientific terms. ASC phenomena in scientific terms.
    
-     It was the hope of many people that religions were simply a + It was the hope of many people that religions were simply a 
 form of superstition that would be left behind in our "rational"  form of superstition that would be left behind in our "rational" 
 age.  Not only has this hope failed, but our own understanding of  age.  Not only has this hope failed, but our own understanding of 
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 ourselves.  The sciences we have developed to date  ourselves.  The sciences we have developed to date 
    
-     not very human sciences.  They tell us how to do things, but + not very human sciences.  They tell us how to do things, but 
 give us not scientific insights on questions of what to do, what  give us not scientific insights on questions of what to do, what 
 not to do, or why to do things. not to do, or why to do things.
    
-     The youth of today and mature scientists in increasing + The youth of today and mature scientists in increasing 
 numbers are turning to meditation, oriental religions, and  numbers are turning to meditation, oriental religions, and 
 personal use of psychedelic drugs.  The phenomena encountered in  personal use of psychedelic drugs.  The phenomena encountered in 
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 personal exploration with their scientific activities. personal exploration with their scientific activities.
    
-     It is difficult to predict what the chances are of + It is difficult to predict what the chances are of 
 developing state-specific sciences.  Our knowledge is till too  developing state-specific sciences.  Our knowledge is till too 
 diffuse and dependent on our normal SoC's.  Yet I think it is  diffuse and dependent on our normal SoC's.  Yet I think it is 
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 too great.  Such questions will only be answered by experiment. too great.  Such questions will only be answered by experiment.
    
-     I have nothing against religious and mystical groups.  Yet I + I have nothing against religious and mystical groups.  Yet I 
 suspect that the vast majority of them have developed compelling  suspect that the vast majority of them have developed compelling 
 belief systems rather than state-specific sciences.  Will  belief systems rather than state-specific sciences.  Will 
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 References and Notes References and Notes
    
-1. T. Blackburn, Science 172, 1003 (1971). +  * 1. T. Blackburn, Science 172, 1003 (1971). 
-2. Newsweek, 25 January 197 I, p. 52. +  * 2. Newsweek, 25 January 197 I, p. 52. 
-3. An attempt to describe the phenomena of marijuana intoxication  +  * 3. An attempt to describe the phenomena of marijuana intoxication in terms that make sense to the user, as well as the investigator, has  been presented elsewhere. See C  Tart, On Being Stoned: A Psychological  Study of Marijuana Intoxication (Science & Behavior Books, Palo Alto, 1971). 
-in terms that make sense to the user, as well as the investigator, has  +  * 4. C. Naranjo and R. Ornstein On the Psychology of Meditation (Viking, New York, 1971). 
-been presented elsewhere. See C  Tart, On Being Stoned: A Psychological  +  * 5. Note that an SoC is defined by the stable parameters of the pattern that constitute it, not by the particular technique of inducing that pattern, for some ASC's can be induced by a variety of induction methods. By analogy, to understand the altered computer program you must study what it does, not study the programmer who originally set it up. 
-Study of Marijuana Intoxication (Science & Behavior Books, Palo  +  * 6. T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962). 
-Alto, 1971). +  * 7. Note that states of confusion and impaired functioning are certainly  aspects of some drug-induced SoC's, but are not of primary interest here. 
-4. C. Naranjo and R. Ornstein On the Psychology of Meditation  +  * 8. R. Rosenthal, Experimenter Effects in Behavioral  Research (Appleton-Century.Crofts, New York, 1966). 
-(Viking, New York, 1971). +  * 9. M. Orne, Amer. Psychologist. 17, 776 (1962). 
-5. Note that an SoC is defined by the stable parameters of the  +  * 10. A state-specific scientist might find his own work somewhat incomprehensible  when  he was not in that SoC because of the phenomenon of state-specific  memory-that is, not enough of his work would transfer to his ordinary  SOC  to  make  it  comprehensible, even  though it  would  make  perfect sense when he was again in the  ASC in which he did his scientific work. 
-pattern that constitute it, not by the particular technique of inducing +  * 11. "Ordinary consciousness  science"  is  not  a good example of  a "pure" state-specific science because many important discoveries have occurred  during  ASC's,  such  as  reverie, dreaming, and meditative-like  states. 
-that pattern, for some ASC's can be induced by a variety of induction  +  * 12. N. Bohr, in Essays, 1958-1962, on Atomic Physics and Human  Knowledge (Wiley, New York, 1963). 
-methods. By analogy, to understand the altered computer program you  +  * 13.    B. Ghiselin,  The Creative Process (New American Library, New York,  1952). 
-must study what it does, not study the programmer who originally set it up. +  * 14. E. Green, A. Green, E. Walters, J. Transpersonal Psychology. 2,  1 (1970). 
-6. T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Univ. of  +  * 15. A. Maslow, The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance (Harper & Row, New York 1966). 
-Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962). +  * 16. The  ASC's  resulting from  very  dangerous drugs (heroin, for  example) may be scientifically interesting, but the risk may be too high to warrant our developing state-specific sciences for them. The  personal and social issues involved in evaluating this  kind  of risk are beyond the scope of this article. 
-7. Note that states of confusion and impaired functioning are   +  * 17. J. Needleman, The New Religions (Doubleday, New York, 1970). 
-certainly  aspects of some drug-induced SoC's, but are not of primary +  * 18. C. Tart, Altered States of Consciousness: A Book of Readings  (Wiley, New York, 1969).
-interest here. +
-8. R. Rosenthal, Experimenter Effects in Behavioral  Research   +
-(Appleton-Century.Crofts, New York, 1966). +
-9. M. Orne, Amer. Psychologist. 17, 776 (1962). +
-10. A state-specific scientist might find his own work somewhat  +
-incomprehensible  when  he was not in that SoC because of the phe- +
-nomenon of state-specific  memory-that is, not enough of his work  +
-would transfer to his ordinary  SOC  to  make  it  comprehensible, +
-even  though it  would  make  perfect sense when he was again in the  +
-ASC in which he did his scientific work. +
-11. "Ordinary consciousness  science"  is  not  a good example of  +
-a "pure" state-specific science because many important discoveries have +
-occurred  during  ASC's,  such  as  reverie, dreaming, and meditative-like  +
-states. +
-12. N. Bohr, in Essays, 1958-1962, on Atomic Physics and Human  +
-Knowledge (Wiley, New York, 1963). +
-13.    B. Ghiselin,  The Creative Process (New American Library, New York,  +
-1952). +
-14. E. Green, A. Green, E. Walters, J. Transpersonal Psychology. 2,  +
-1 (1970). +
-15. A. Maslow, The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance (Harper  +
-& Row, New York 1966). +
-16. The  ASC's  resulting from  very  dangerous drugs (heroin, for  +
-example) may be scientifically interesting, but the risk may be too +
-high to warrant our developing state-specific sciences for them. The  +
-personal and social issues involved in evaluating this  kind  of +
-risk are beyond the scope of this article. +
-17. J. Needleman, The New Religions (Doubleday, New York, 1970). +
-18. C. Tart, Altered States of Consciousness: A Book of Readings  +
-(Wiley, New York, 1969).+
    
  
  
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